Dreams of John F. Kennedy - 700 Words

Inaugural Address: The Dreams of John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy; even today 50 years after his death, his name still inspires Americans and others around the globe. President Kennedy was elected in 1960; this was the start of a new decade and a new generation and was a time of great change in our nation. Kennedy was the youngest U.S. president in our history and when sworn into office spoke his Inaugural Address. His Inaugural speech addresses many problems faced by Americans and many other people around the world during this. The Inaugural Address focuses on several main points including, segregation and civil rights of African Americans and other minorities, calling all Americans to help both him and the country move forward,†¦show more content†¦Sara Ann Mehltretter writes in her thesis of Kennedy’s Address, â€Å"Thus, Kennedy challenged the people themselves to determine their own future.† Based on these quotes, to a majority of Americans, the 196 0’s was the beginning of something new and different. American’s put great faith in their government to solve big problems facing the country but he wanted American’s to not only put faith in the government but in themselves as well. He established the Peace Corps to challenge the American citizens and to have them dedicate themselves to public service. President Kennedy states that â€Å"man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty.† The idea was to end poverty because the U.S. is a strong nation and has the ability to do so. To many, he was thought of as a strong leader, not only through his powerful words but through his successful style. At the time, the U.S. was facing major problems with the Soviet Union, Cuba, and Vietnam. President Kennedy hoped to bring peace to those countries, he had a dream to stop communism from spreading and to advance democracy around the world. In his Inaugural Address he states, â€Å"To those old allies . . . we pledge the loyalty of faithful friends. United there is little we cannot do . . . Divided there is little we can do.† In his statement, he stated to those countries to forget the past becauseShow MoreRelatedHaving Dreams Of Being On The Moon By John F. Kennedy1294 Words   |  6 PagesHaving dreams of being on the moon, President John F. Kennedy approaches the podium on September 12th, 1962 at Rice University in Houston Texas to inspire others to have unimaginable dreams of their own. Kennedy produces a dramatically moving speech to create brilliance across America and for all of America, through his own dreams in the context of â€Å"The decision to go to the moon.† Around this time was the height of the cold war and just the start of the space race, with that said, he starts hisRead MoreWar : Dream Or Impossibility? American President John F. Kennedy1063 Words   |  5 Pages Michael Dombrovsky Mrs.Healy ENG2DI-03 26 October 2015 End to War: Dream or Impossibility American president John F. Kennedy once said, â€Å"The cost of freedom is always high, but Americans have always paid it. And one path we shall never choose, and that is the path of surrender, or submission†. War has been an everyday occurrence in the lives of ordinary people in developing countries. Ever since the invention of the sword, nations have waged war on their enemies. Through a combination of variousRead More John F. Kennedys Civil Rights Speech1300 Words   |  5 Pagescivil rights? John F. Kennedy believed so during the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Right Movement began around 1950 and ended around 1970. A few of the major leaders were Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and John F. Kennedy. The purpose of the Civil Rights Movement was to end discrimination and prejudice among whites and blacks. Many African Americans did not have the same rights as Caucasians mainly due to their skin being a different color. A famous speech delivered by John F. Kennedy was â €Å"TheRead MorePresident John F. Kennedy1608 Words   |  7 Pagesthey liked and enjoyed where they lead this country. One of those few presidents was President John F. Kennedy. Elected in 1960 as the 35th president of the United States, Kennedy became the youngest and first Roman Catholic president. He won the hearts of many Americans with his youthfulness and charming good looks. Kennedy won the presidential race against Richard Nixon in a very close race. John F. Kennedy s assassination occurred on November 22, 1963, in Dallas Texas, this caused much shock andRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy Compared to Martin Luther King Jr.957 Words   |  4 PagesCompare and Contrast Essay There have been many great speeches delivered in the past. Some of the best ones demonstrated why our our freedoms, our liberty, and to be united as a country, is so important. John F. Kennedy’s â€Å"Inaugural Address† and Martin Luther King Junior’s â€Å"I Have a Dream† are both great examples of such historical speeches. Both these speeches have many similarities such as, referencing the past, wanting change to happen, and both desired peace. Yet with all these similaritiesRead MorePresident John F. Kennedy1220 Words   |  5 PagesPresident John â€Å"Jack† Fitzgerald Kennedy was born May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts to Rose Kennedy and Joseph P. Kennedy. John F. Kennedy, also known as JFK, had three brothers and five sisters. Young John, â€Å"Jack† as he was known by, attended a boarding school for boys in Connecticut. Here he was active in football, golf, tennis, and basketball. Once Jack graduated Choate in 1936, he entere d Harvard. It was while he was studying at Harvard that he injured his back while playing football,Read MoreThe Life of John Fitzgerald Kennedy Essay948 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy was the 35th President of The United States. He was more than just the Commander-in Chief to many. For those who admired him the most, he was not just their role model, he was also their hero. But, he was also the only Catholic to hold the highest office of the land. Many groups, especially the Protestants, were opposed to a Catholic president. They feared that the Vatican somehow would become involved in America’s matters, and the Constitution would be changed to make CatholicismRead MoreLeslie Cardoso. Leslie Cardoso. Ap English 3. P.3.1082 Words   |  5 PagesCardoso Leslie Cardoso Ap English 3 p.3   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The JFK Inaugural Address On January 20, 1961, John Fitzgerald Kennedy delivered one of America s few standout inaugural addresses and one of the finest speeches in American history. By invoking the American dream and extending its promise to the rest of the world, Kennedy s speech was an inspirational call to action that resonates even today. John Fitzgerald Kennedy’s Inaugural Address, The article â€Å"Inside Kennedy’s Inauguration, 50 Years on†,Read MoreJohn F. Kennedy Essay1302 Words   |  6 Pagesof America, John Fitzgerald Kennedy remains the youngest man ever elected to the office of Chief Executive, and the youngest man to die while still fulfilling his duties. Serving as Americas President, John F. Kennedy held his office for 1000 days, dying November 22nd, 1963, assassinated at the age of 46. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29th, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts, the second son of nine children of the wealthy Roman Catholic Kennedy family. Joseph Patrick Kennedy, Kennedys fatherRead MoreRhetoric in Jfk and Mlk Jr.s Speeches1119 Words   |  5 Pages1960’s, civil rights were becoming a very present and evident concern to the people of America once again. Issues were being brought up to leaders that could and had the authority to actually help out and do something about these said issues. John F. Kennedy was elected in 1961, and the state our country was in was not as great as it could have been. In fact, it was not good at all. In North America, African Americans were discriminated against in many areas including education, work opportunities

Great Memory Free Essays

Memory†¦ is the diary that we all carry about with us† is a quote by Oscar Wilde that in my personal opinion describes memory pretty well. Memory is something that people carry with them all the time. It is a powerful thing and something that most people never want to lose. We will write a custom essay sample on Great Memory or any similar topic only for you Order Now In some cases memories can be of something good or they can also be a bad memory. It all depends on how you want to remember it. Samuel Taylor Coleridge talks about memory in one of his poems he wrote called â€Å"Frost at Midnight. † Also there is talk about memory in â€Å"Ode to the West Wind† written by Percy Bysshe Shelly. Both of these poems show how the authors are using their memories to write the pomes. Both writers talk about a memory they have and they tell a story using it. Coleridge talks about how he feels now and reflects to how he felt as a child while raising his own child. Shelly talks about how he wishes he felt different now and how he wants to feel like he did when he was young. Both authors I think are sort of depressed. In their poems the tone is kind of melancholy and sad. In â€Å"Frost at Midnight† it is winter time hence the name. And in the winter is when he feels lonelier. The author lives in a cottage and it is very late at night. In the poem he talks about it being so quite. In the poem he says â€Å"The inmates of my cottage, all at rest. Have lett me to that solitude, which suits abstract musings: save that at my side my cradled infant slumbers peacefully’ (as cited in Damrosch, 2004, p. 344). Everyone is asleep even his child is sound asleep; he is the only one up. And he is starting to feel lonely with all the stillness. The only other thing that is up is a piece of soot in the fire place. As Coleridge says in the poem â€Å"Only that film, which fluttered on the rate, still flutters there, the sole unquiet thing. Great Memory 3 Methinks, its motion in this hush nature gives it dim sympathies with me who live, making it a companionable form† (p. 344). This piece of â€Å"film† or soot makes him think back to his childhood. This is where the memory part comes into play. He is thinking back to his child hood. He is thinking about his birthplace, the old church-tower, and the bells of the poor man and thinking about this is making him homesick. Then he talks about how he was a lonely child. In the poem he says â€Å"save if the door half opened, and I natched a hasty glance , and still my heart leaped up, for still I hoped to see the stranger’s face, townsman, or aunt, or sister, more beloved, my playmate when we both were clothed alike† (p. 344). This is when I think that the author is most depressed in this poem. Reflecting back to his childhood makes him sad and feel lonely. Reflecting back on his childhood and how he felt that loneliness he talks later on about how he wants better for his child. He doesn’t want his kid to feel the emptiness and loneliness that he is feeling and has felt as a child. He says â€Å"but thou, my babe! Shalt wander like a breeze by lakes and sandy shores, beneath the crags of ancient mountain, beneath the clouds, which image in their bulk both lakes and shores and mountain crags: so shalt thou see and hear the lovely shapes and sounds intelligible of that eternal language† (p. 345). He wants his child to have better childhood than he did. He wants his child to have more and be better than he was a child. He says that he wants all seasons to be sweet for his child. In this poem he uses his 4 memory to tell a story and he was as a child and how he doesn’t was his child to row up feeling like he did as a kid. In â€Å"Ode to the West Wind† Percy Shelly is talking about a storm that is going to hit. In this poem he talks about being weighed down and he wants to be free again. And he feels like this storm will do that for him. In this poem he wants the wind to inspire him to write poetry, and wants new thoughts. The writer doesn’t even care that this storm is going to hit. He is welcoming it with open arms. The wind is blowing the leaves and clouds and is blowing over the ocean. He wants to be the wind. Memory is talked about in this poem when the talks about how he wants to be ree again. He wants to feel Joy and emotion again. He feels like this storm can do that for him that’s why he wants it to come. In the poem he says â€Å"The impulse of thy strength, only less free than thou, o uncontrollable! If even I were as in my boyhood, and could be free the comrade of thy wanderings over heaven, as then, when to outstrip the skiey speed scarce seemed a vision, I would ne’er have striven† (as cited in Damrosch, 2004, p. 401). This says if he was in his boyhood he would be free and as an adult he is not. So that is why he refers to going back to his childhood to be ree again. His childh memory is a g one. And as ne got older ne teels like ne isn’t free and wants a free spirit. I think his tone in this is also sad. But when he talks about his boyhood I think he is feeling better. In both of these poem that I discussed go back to a memory. But however, both of the memories are different. In Coleridge’s â€Å"Frost at Midnight† the memory he refers to is sad and Great Memory 5 not one that a person wants to remember. He talks about how lonely he was as a child how he hoped he would see someone he knows while he was at school. Every ay he hoped that he would see someone threw the window that he would know. And he hoped that his child would never feel like this. He wanted to make sure his child had better and felt better than he did. In Percy Shellys â€Å"Ode to the West Wind† the memory also goes back to his childhood, but in this poem his childhood was a good time. In this poem he talks about how he wished he was back in his boyhood because was free then. As an adult he doesn’t feel free, he feels weighed down. That’s why he wants to storm to come he feels it will make him feel something again. This memory is a happy one. One that a person would want to remember, not like the one is Coleridge’s â€Å"Frost as Midnight. In both of these poems I think that there is a common theme of emotion and nature. Both of them describe how they are feeling. One is lonely and one feels no joy. But they both use nature to describe it. Coleridge uses the winter and the frost. And Shelly uses the big storm that is about to his to describe how he feels in the poem. With bot h of these poem is shows that a memory is not always good or bad, happy or sad. They can be both. And In the two poems I picked to write about the authors, Samuel Coleridge and Percy Shelly, talk about memorys they had. Both of them happen to be different. One is a happy memory and one that he wants to remember. And the other is one that is not so happy, more of a gloomy memory that he doesn’t want to remember. Memories are what you make of them. You are the only person who can decide how they are going to be remembered. Great Memory 6 No one else can tell you how to feel or how to keep things in your memory. â€Å"Memory is a way of holding onto the things you love, the things you are, the things ou never want to lose – From the television show The Wonder Years† I think this is a perfect quote for memory. How to cite Great Memory, Papers

Heineken Marketing Mix free essay sample

But globally Coca Cola is  pioneer and Pepsi  is follower. ThePepsi makes defense strategies so that it can maintain its position in the market. While Page 3 of 24 Marketing Plan of PEPSI Coca Cola is a challenger and it makes attack strategies so that it can become themarket EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of this marketing plan is to develop an understanding about howPEPSI is marketed and distributed in the market (Product, Price, Promotion andDistribution). In this project different analysis are performe. Companyimage,  mission  statement,  goals  amp;  objectives,  core  business  areas,  SWOTAnalysis,  Industry  Analysis,  Marketing  Program,  target  markets,  MarketingStrategy, Marketing Environment, Point  of  Differencesamp; Positioning At the end itwas discussed that what are the core marketing strategies that make PEPSI themore powerful brand. COMPANY HISTORY Pepsi Cola International is world-well-known soft drinks brand. It is a very wellorganized multinational company, which operates in almost all over the world. They produce, one of best-carbonated drinks in the world. We will write a custom essay sample on Heineken Marketing Mix or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Pepsi is a symbol of  hygiene, quality and service, all over the  world. Pepsi is producing Cola for  morethan 100 years, and it has dominated the world market for a long time. Its headoffice is in New York. Page 4 of 24 Marketing Plan of PEPSI Initially Pepsi was used as cough syrup in America, and sold in pharmacy. Butthe taste of that syrup was liked by the people and then added water andcarbonation and with the passage of time it is used as a regular drink and now itis world largest soft drink brand. In beverage sector pioneer is Coca cola andPepsi is follower. In 1909 more than 24 American States gave license to Pepsifor sale. Pepsi Cola was first introduced in 6. 5 ounce bottle. Pepsi was firstregistered in 1932. In 1932 Pepsi Cola was introduced a big bottle of 12 ounce. In 1950, the PepsiCola formula was slightly changed and the sweetness and calories in Pepsi Colawere decreased. In 1957, the bottle was changed to new attractive bottle and theproduct line was also increased by introduction of two more products that wereTeem and Marinda.

The Question of African Agency in Colonial courts and Social Conflict

This study of African agency in colonial courts and subsequent social conflicts in Africa applied law to establish and maintain its rule. Looking critically at these aspects, I intend to approach Law as a coercive force that assisted colonial state power to help in securing order, enhancing capitalist development, and restructuring of social relations. [1]Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Question of African Agency in Colonial courts and Social Conflict specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Significantly, I examine how colonialists enforced new sets of rules and regulations to enable a general process of societal and cultural change. This process was a mission of civilization of colonialism. I critically look at how the mission was legitimized by importing Western set of laws that replaced traditional customs and rules. While historians were almost certain that Western laws were assumed to be more civilized, m ajority of colonial societies are still dealing with the effects this process and the legacy of this legal pluralism[2]. In Africa, colonialists enforced dual legal system in which colonialist law was superimposed in existing legal system. However, both sets of law depended on colonial state legal system. The establishment and maintenance of the legal system was a central feature European colonialist for many years. Majority of colonial societies are still dealing with the effects this process and the legacy of this legal pluralism. [3] In this context, I argue that it is important for the reader to understand that law was necessary for establishment of colonial order as it was the central mechanism of defining relationships between state and society. I guess colonial states were able to set boundaries of behaviour and control spectrum of private transactions through both criminal and civil law regulations. [4] More importantly, although the law was vital in the colonizing process, there existed some conflict concerning the ways in which this process actually affected those colonized. The law application of the law in strict sense perpetuated colonial interests and limited demands placed on the colonized land and labour[5].Advertising Looking for term paper on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More I try to explain how the law was applied by both the colonized and the colonizer to resolve important disputes concerning authority and legitimacy. [6]/sup In addition, I maintain that the entrenched state system of governance include established laws and institutions adopted in African colonies. Historians explore modes of control that recognize customary rules as well as state laws imported from colonizer states. I argue that it is important for historical scholars to understand that customary law referred to the law of colonized people as accepted by colonial administrations. Customary law was es tablished by colonial administrations to guide disputes concerning non Europeans only. Many historians have justified the need by colonial administrations to have customary law as a method of providing autonomy and self governance to people they thought were not ready to appreciate the benefits of civilization. In addition, I argue that customary law enabled colonial powers to use limited human and financial resources to effectively control its conquered territories. Furthermore, I intend to reveal the purpose customary laws were codified by colonial administrations into fixed, formal and written rules enforced by colonial courts. [7] Colonial Courts and Social Conflicts The study of â€Å"Girl Cases: marriage and colonists in Gusiiland, Kenya, 1890-1970† requires people to understand the question of African Agency in colonial courts and the resultant social conflicts. While examining this context, I aim to trace the changes and explain; the intersections of the colonial tren ds in social and legal thinking, colonial administrative policies in Kisii, colonial political economy, and the ideals and actions of individual Gusii people that shaped this history. This study analyzes the importance of African courts, that is, â€Å"the cornerstone to indirect rule by colonies†[8]. Despite the importance of these African courts, little work has been encouraged by historians. Following widely publications in the 1950s and 1960s on African courts, historical appreciation of African law emerged in the 1980s. I argue that colonial administrators sought customary law of each tribe they wished to govern; I feel that indirect rule performed better if officials could implement legitimate laws accepted by those ruled.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Question of African Agency in Colonial courts and Social Conflict specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Whereas most African societies had not adopted an alterable, uncomplicated set of laws, colonial officials were not deterred. The study relies heavily on both civil and criminal records from the council of elders that served Gusiiland. The council of elders adjudicated many cases every year. Shadle examined court cases relating to marriage disputes in Gusii, Kenya. The scholar was more concerned with criminal cases of adultery, elopement (runaway Women), indecent assault and abduction. I use the court records to effectively apply to uncover the question of African agency in colonial courts and resultant social conflicts[9]. Eloping (Run Away) Women and African Societies Since historians indicate years of interwar as problematic for African women the earliest period of colonization, African women found colonial masters sympathetic to their suffering[10]. I deduce that this scenario changed in the early 1920s and 1930s. History indicates that colonialists had discovered women in rural areas as important for agricultural pr oduction. Prior to this period, women were important for social and physiological reproduction of men for wage labour. I conclude that they were confined to their rural farms to serve colonial interests as well as rural patriarchs[11]. From the study, I also reveal that; rural patriarchs at that time sought avenues to maintain authority over their women (wives and daughters). For these colonialists to use customary law (indirect rule) to maintain social stability and keep colonial rule, they required African rulers’ (senior men) to operate. They discovered the importance of cooperating with African elders in maintaining social order. African elders similarly asked for state help to control their womenfolk. Historians allude that colonial administrations strengthened these laws and monitored women movements with the sole aim of establishing authority and loyalty of African elders. Historians argue that African courts were established by colonial states to solve intra-African c onflicts. African courts adopted customary laws which were interpreted by senior elders as court officials in ways interestingly beneficial to themselves. I agree that these courts applied their authority to regulate the actions of women and youthful men. [12]Advertising Looking for term paper on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This historiography tries to prove that the subordinated under colonialism contested efforts that empowered their superiors. As we examine the studies of peasants, slaves and workers during colonialism in Africa, we realise the majority contested exploitation by either Europeans of fellow Africans. As scholars project, every power nexus expects the subordinated to contest the relations that empower their superiors. Elaborate studies of peasants, slaves and workers proved that Africans resisted their exploitation, whether by Europeans or other Africans. [13] Abductions In this book, I wish to examine the effects of colonialism and how it was felt in Gusiiland, Kenya. I believe, colonialists thought there rule functioned only with the support of â€Å"tribal† leaders[14]. The necessity of such thinking will become apparent when we consider; â€Å"temperament of colonial administrators, their social and educational backgrounds, made them to appreciate strong patriarchal authori ty.† [15] Men in Gusiiland resorted to abduction to acquire wives in the later 1800s. [16] I argue that this evoked pitched conflicts between clans in Gusiiland. An abductor capable to hold his catch long enough so his gambles pay off. Historians allude that accumulating bride-wealth in the 1890s was virtually difficult as disease destroyed large herds; as a result this led to escalation on the number of abductions in Gusiiland. [17] After 1900, the number of cattle rose and marriage became affordable. Consequently, the number of abductions decreased remarkably. Ultimately, abductors and men taking in runaway women had the intension of marriage. Abductors employed the mode of violence and rape against their subjects. Shadle avers that they threatened and used physical assault to break the woman’s spirit. Popular brutal means they used included punches, knives, clubs, and others on women. [18] Besides brutality, abductors raped their victims as well. They sought to impre gnate their victims as soon as possible. Although premarital pregnancy did not ruin a girl’s chance of marriage, it was impaired. The affected women were intimidated through unjust branding. Abductees who became pregnant through this brutality so few options. Majority resigned to the forced unions. As court records reveal admission of one woman, after having been abducted for three months, â€Å"now I am pregnant and I don’t know what to do.† [19] Still in a desperate position, she later admitted agreeing to marry the abductor even though he had no cattle to settle the marriage. In essence, I deduce that maintenance of encouraged patriarch authority created marital conflicts in Gusiiland. Colonial State Representatives and marriage Disputes This study of â€Å"colonial state representatives and marriage disputes in Gusiiland† requires readers to examine the powers granted to chiefs, headsmen and other indirect rulers that made it possible for men looking for their abducted women easy. I approach the study by explaining that there was no overreaching authority in Gusii highlands during pre-colonial period; and this made it difficult for tracking down women who had run away to any clans. The power conferred to colonial state representatives enabled men to move with relative safety between clans when tracking down the runaway women. Litigants were encouraged by administrators to meet the council of elders (etureti) before going to court (ritongo)[20]. The status of the council of elders was contradictory. The colonial administration viewed the council of elders as a resuscitation of indigenous authorities; Gusii people on the other hand, regarded the council of elders as an invention of the colonial era. The book notes that they continued to seek guidance of their home elders (abanyamaiga). This elders pre-dated colonial rule and included all the elders from the lineage. In contrast, the council of elders were few, elected and appointe d as headsmen. They also had a jurisdiction of a large geographical area rather than lineages.[21] The study of â€Å"Slavery and the Birth of an African City† reiterates that colonial administrations established law to enable them engage with Africans who resisted access to resources, labour, and colonial power and authority[22]. I believe Africans contested European morality and culture. In the process of this interaction, Africans experienced the realities of colonialism. In away, both Africans and Europeans shaped the law and institutions during colonial period. Historians allude that Africans used law as a resource of resistance against colonialism. By looking at this study, readers should discover that they used legal rules and procedures as weapons of African resistance.[23]/sup Buoyed with African resistance to direct intervention and in the interest of checking the costs of administration, indirect rule by colonialists retreated from aggressive legal and governmental reform. [24] Colonial masters still endeavoured to civilize African institutions gently and through remote control. They did not wish to rush the process to avoid the risk of losing the stability of native society. The native society had political and social organization that was well ordered. In this system, all members had definite series of responsibilities to one another. Thus, the British administrator was then tasked with responsibility of reforming indigenous administration from within indigenous institutions. [25] Indirect rule was appropriate to the British to provide a solution to the challenge of administering the vast African empire. A wave of administrative reforms encouraged the spread of native administration across the British Empire. The historical account of this reforms incorporated indigenous systems of law and government, and this helped identify these indigenous systems and governing through local authorities. [26 This also required colonial administrator to i dentify pliable candidates. Roberts and Mann historical account found the British social anthropologists ready to tackle challenges. They found Africans to be best suited to serve the British, due rewards that accompanied the office. I discovered that native administration was easy to implement where stable states existed. However, the system created difficulties in areas as well. Indirect rule in practice encouraged instability. Mann and Roberts note that, although colonial administrators failed to notice it, colonialists imposed themselves on societies engrossed in tussles over leadership and power and the terms under which they were executed. The British built their colonial rule on conflict and change through traditional systems of authority as central to their strategies. [27] Some of the kind of authorities the British sought did not exist in some places. Where local rulers could not be found by administrators, they established them, for instance; the Igbo of Nigeria. In Igbo land, the British established native administration around Macdonald and Moor’s warrant chiefs. They reaffirmed there executive authority as well as judicial authority. Combining these responsibilities and resting them in single individuals went contrary to Igbo pre-colonial political systems[28]. As a result, authorities in Igbo-land lacked legitimacy of their counterparts in Northern Nigeria. The British social anthropologist sent to unmask the source of Aba women’s war, blamed in part the enforcement of indirect rule. [29] According to the anthropologist, native authorities were seen to be more powerful than pre-colonial village councils. In addition, these authorities used their judicial and executive powers to serve their personal interests. This generated widespread hostility. Women in Igbo-land protested when chiefs were empowered to collect taxes. [30] History provides that British were not the only ones who incorporated Africans into colonial law and governmen t. The Portuguese, French and Belgians as well incorporated Africans into their colonial law and government. The French West African government faced a similar conflict faced by the British administration when its indirect rule model resulted to Aba women’s conflict in South-eastern Nigeria. [31] The French also faced conflicts over authority and customs as it codified native jurisdictions and procedures in the French West African government. The period that followed immediately colonial conquests witnessed sizeable migration, urbanization and social change. I am confident that this resulted in rapid growth in urban centres and reorganization in rural societies of different ethnic groups. These groups engaged in domestic relationships, and took their grievances to native courts. The government introduced laws specifying customs prevailed in different circumstances in response to growing number of civil conflicts over marriage, divorce, inheritance and succession fronted by li tigants practicing different customs. Nevertheless, it was not easy to find qualified assessors to help both Africans and Europeans who presided over the tribunals[32]. In sum, we must know that the British and the French adopted the policy of governing their colonies through local systems of law. This became an ideological template to the British and French for the transformation of African societies that conformed to their model of colonial rule. I discovered that the executive and judicial authority was linked by this template. The competence of native authorities depended in the concept of indirect rule. Yet, customary law was established out of collaboration of Africans who sought to establish new forms of access to resources and labour. In addition, Europeans were looking for local authorities to occupy positions generated by their concepts of African societies. [33] Accordingly, the study portrays colonial beliefs as not standing alone. They faced African representatives and their own administrators at every point. The need of colonial administrators to rule their subjects through native legal and political systems produced opportunities for indigenous people through custom representation. Colonial administrators strived to civilize African institutions through indirect rule. [34] The study of â€Å"Litigants and Household African Disputes in French Soudan† on the other hand, takes a historical look at the relationship between the formations of a new system of native courts in the French Soudan in 1905. It also examines how women responded to this new system of native courts. Further, it enlightens readers to understand how the French colonial government charged with responsibility of managing the operations of these courts was mesmerized with the vast numbers of women requiring divorce. Two interpretations are provided as to why African women through these new courts sought divorce during the early colonial period. As a result, this influenced c ourt practices and drove native policy. The first interpretation explains many cases of women seeking divorce due to wretched circumstances in marriage; and second interpretation provided divorce as undermining the authority of the household head and family stability.[35] Women Initial Reactions to the New Courts The French administrators were caught off guard by the vast numbers of women requiring divorces when new courts were implemented in 1905. [36] The court records available indicate frequent incidences of divorce cases sought by women before the provincial tribunal. Women in the French Soudan realized initially that the new courts addressed their grievances. The new courts acted favorably to them as they were able to accept their requests to end marriages they did not prefer. Plaintiffs needing divorce in the French Soudan were required to articulate their reasons for needing to dissolve their marriages. [37] Reasons such as abandonment, mistreatment, non-payment of bride wea lth, spouse illnesses, incompatibility and others were cited as the main trigger for divorce[38]. The examination of the history of custom and Islamic law in the native courts of the French Soudan looks at customary and Islamic family law in native courts in relation to establishment of new courts in 1905. [39] By this I was able to trace emergence of these conflicts to the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. We also discover that reforms in French colonial policies and subsequent revolutionary reforms occurred in France at that period. The study examines extensively the conflicts as a result of French colonial policy, and looks at how African litigants applied new courts to confound expectations of their colonial master. [40] This study requires readers to comprehend the colonial legal system as established in 1903 and implemented in 1905. The legal system had procedural problems affecting legal policy and cultural issues in the West African colonial establishment[41]. I argue that the established legal system presented thoughts harbored by the French administrators in relation to Islamic law and also African culture. Sharia law aspects in this law enabled custom and Muslim family law to function together and also guided on how non-Muslims solved their disputes. [42] It also provides procedure for African judges in making judgments. They did not put into consideration the extent of African customs variability. Furthermore, we discover that they did not anticipate litigants to new courts would cause the need for cultural strategies. Historically, colonial legal system was established to enforce uniformity and regularity in administration of justice in the French Soudan. I believe the system mandated establishment of courts and provide regular forms of reporting. While Richard Roberts suggested â€Å"codification of customs to allow use of customs to solve problems†, this was not fully realized[43] . Ii is necessary to understand that the new c ourts could not complete improvisation. More importantly, I argue, the colonial administration while establishing the new legal system did not project the enormity of social changes. The system was established on social changes that were profound. It politicized the courts by establishing new opportunities for litigants to apply native courts to solve disputes in new ways. [44] Bibliography Mann, Kristin. 2007. Slavery and the Birth of an African City, Lagos, 1760-1900. Indiana: Indiana UP, 2007. Roberts, Mann K. 1991. Introduction: Law in Colonial Africa. London: Heinemann. Robert, Richard. 2005. Litigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts in the French Soudan. London: Heinemann. Shadle, Brett. Girl Cases: Marriage and Colonialism in Gusiiland. London: Heinemann Footnotes Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 6. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 8. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 4. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 6. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 8. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann, 2006), xxi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvii.. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxv. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvii. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxvi. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxiii. Shadle Brett. Girl Cases: marriage and Colonialist in Gusiiland, Kenya (London: Heinemann,2006), xxiv. Mann Kristin. 2007. Slavery and the birth of an African City (Indiana: Indianapolis UP, 2007), 4. Roberts Richards and M ann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 3. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 7. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 9. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 37. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 11. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 6. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 6. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 5. Roberts Richards and Mann Kristin. Law in Colonial Africa. (Ndiana: Indiana UP,1991), 2. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 84. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 85. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 86. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 85. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 86. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 87. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 90. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 85. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Cou rts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 91. Roberts Richards. Itigants and Household African Disputes and Colonial Courts (London:Heinemann, 2005), 92. This term paper on The Question of African Agency in Colonial courts and Social Conflict was written and submitted by user Braeden Booker to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.